Valle AC, Timo-Iaria C, Sameshima K, yamashita R. Theta waves and behavioral manifestations of alertness and dreaming activity in the rat. Neurosci Res 1993;17:127-140. Winson (1990) believes that dreams "reflect an individual strategy for survival. Several theories claim that dreaming is a random by-product of REM sleep physiology and that it does not serve any natural function. The previous station of these nuclei is the interpeduncular nucleus, whose stimulation with carbachol caused sleep within nearly 30 seconds. Esquirol, one of the French psychiatrists who started the revolution that changed the ancient (an cruel) view of the mental diseases, spent several hours at night observing how his patients behaved during sleep and concluded that their movements while asleep were related to their dreams, just as Aristotle had found long ago. By comparing the program with the peripheral information, that tells it how the behavior is evolving, the cerebellum produces corrections, so that the execution can match the program. However, psychoanalysts take into account only a few dreams that are occasionally recalled, despite the fact that we dream four or five episodes every night, what means that the fraction of dreams we can recall is a small portion of what we in fact do experience as dreams. Hobson JA. 31. 2020 Nov 12;11:565694. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2020.565694. In addition, zif-268 is up-regulated in several novelty or learning behavioral paradigms, including two-way active avoidance (104), brightness discrimination (105), and enriched environment exposure (106). WebThe leading theory of dreaming in the early decades of this research was the psychoanalytic, which views dreams as highly meaningful reflections of unconscious mental functioning. Behav Brain Sci 2000;23:867-76. 2022 Nov 3;12(11):1832. doi: 10.3390/jpm12111832. The meaning of dreams. With the development of scientific technology, many theories of dreaming have been established. Some more recent theories of dreaming emphasize an adaptive function related to emotion and a role in learning and memory consolidation. In 1944 Obhlmeyer, Brilmayer & Uhlstrung (10) observed that in humans penile erection occurs during sleep at intervals of 85 minutes, which is the average duration of a sleep cycle. activation-synthesis. Raven Press, New york 1981:405-429. Krueger JM, Obl F. A neuronal group theory of sleep function. Marini G. Motor phenomena during sleep. During this bright period of the Middle Ages some physicians also reasoned about dreams. Careers. 6. (36,37) have recorded contraction of the tympanic muscles (stapedius and tensor tympani) during human sleep. Its is noteworthy that Weed & Halam's data, published in 1896, are close to those reported by Rechtschaffen & Buchignani in 1992, which was calculated as the mean of the average of seven different studies published by other authors (40). Brain Res 1996;770:192-201. Kleitman N. Sleep and Wakefulness. Our data with rats are quite consistent as to the variation of blood pressure and heart rate during oniric activity. The main purpose of experimental decerebration is to study the mechanisms of the fundamental posture, that is, the standing posture. During the past two decades several authors also did quantify the kinds of dreams. Cesar Timo-Iaria (in memorian); Angela Cristina do Valle. 27. Foulkes (1982) considered that dreams are so easily forgotten because the brain in desynchronized sleep is in a "reflective state". Electrophysiological manifestations of wakefulness and desynchronized sleep in the rat. Mori D, Shik ML, yagodnitsyn AS. We suppose, instead, inasmuch as dreams are forgotten if we are not aroused while dreaming or within ten to fifteen minutes immediately after the dream has ceased, that it may well be that dreams are forgotten because the reticular activating system is highly deactivated during desynchronized sleep and thus the memory of the dreams cannot be consolidated (110). Rothschuch KR. Ergebn. Brain Res 2002, submitted. 36. In non-human animals the report regarding dreams is obviously impossible but, fortunately, a dream can be detected in both humans and other species by analyzing its motor, vegetative and electrophysiological manifestations, as will be described below. Brain warning function for REM-sleep. Sleep 1999;22:409-18. De Sanctis, in 1899, in his book I Sogni, Studi Clinici ed Psicologici di un Alienista (Dreams, Clinical and Psychological Studies of a Psychiatrist), cites no less than 323 articles and books dealing with dreams, which proves that the objective study of dreams did not start during the middle of the 20th century, as is usually taken for granted (4). Xerxes, in fact, had discovered an important aspect of dreams but his oracle discarded such an explanation, in favor of the mystic one. 78. Some of his statements, hereby reproduced in a simplified form from his book on sleep and dreams, briefly illustrate his contribution to the study of this subject: "All creatures that have four limbs and are sanguine (mammals) display signs that they dream while asleep. Vertes RP. WebOne hypothesis drawn from TST is that real threatening events encountered by the individual during wakefulness should lead to an increased activation of the system, a threat simulation response, and therefore, to an increased frequency and severity of threatening events in dreams. Brain activity during this time keeps us functioning and ready to process information when we wake up the next morning! By measuring the voltage of the potential generated by the rotation it is possible to know if the object is near or far. 107. 75. The oscillation of the sleep depth as cycles, as is well known presently, is quite clear in this figure. A nerve growth factor-induced gene encodes a possible trancriptional regulatory factor. In both instances sleep evolved according to the phases of synchronized and then of desynchronized sleep, during which eye movements always occurred. 85. Stern W, Forbes WN, Morgane PJ. 2017 May 31;2017(1):nix009. It has been proposed (120,123,124) that presleep mentation is infrequently incorporated in top dreams and that "naturalistic" day time events rarely enter dream content, but several authors correlated dream content to the previous day events, starting with Aristotle 2,400 years ago and with Calkins in 1893. Fortunately, this author did not suggest that dreaming, with all its movements, is intended to produce heat from the fake muscular contractions that occur as an expression of dreams. Science 1994;265:676-9. Some authors have not been able to find changes in heart rate and respiration during desynchronized sleep (61) but there are striking demonstrations that blood pressure is reduced (figure 6), attaining values as low as 60 mmHg of systolic pressure; heart rate is also reduced and ventilation decreases (38,62). Nature 1989;340:474-6. The leading theory of dreaming in the early decades of this research was the psychoanalytic, which views dreams as highly meaningful reflections of unconscious mental functioning. While the how and why of dreaming may be explored using physiological and biological methods, dreaming is also a subjective experience involving a form of mentation that can offer representations of an individual's internal world. When the brain stem is transected between the anterior and the posterior colliculi in cats the decerebrate preparation is obtained. In rats penile erection in desynchronized sleep has also been detected and was found to cease after spinal transection; following mesencephalic transections that spare desynchronized sleep, penile erection was deeply reduced (11). The preferential eye movements direction may be related to the dream content and, perhaps, as such also to hemispheric dominance but it should always be taken into consideration that any movement originated by a dream is always faulty, otherwise we would perform normal behaviors during a dream, what does not happen due to the inhibition of motoneurons. The cycle of sleep in the rat (preliminary report). His personal oracle, however, disagreed and convinced him that his dreams were warnings from the gods. Electrical potentials recorded from the medial vestibular nuclei precede eye movements by 20 to 30 milliseconds, which points to these nuclei as the last synaptic stations in the pathway that produces eye movements during desynchronized sleep. Desynchronized sleep can be provoked by carbachol infusion in the pontine reticular formation (94). This allows us to see the irrational as a normal event, while emotional processing and symbolic identities can be explored. Unfortunately, despite the opinion of great scientists of the past, most researchers that deal with sleep and dreaming, probably moved by philosophical, religious prejudice and a faulty reasoning, do not accept the idea that non-human animals do dream. 55. Baust's data regarding the cat are also evident (38). J Neurophysiol 1966;29:871-87. 13 Loomis AL, Harvey DN, Hobart GA. Distribution of disturbance patterns in the human electroencephalogram, with special reference to sleep. Hodes R, Dement WC. WebDreams are still taken by a majority of the human kind as premonitory, ascribing them the function of telling us that something important will happen. Timo-Iaria C, Valle AC. Europ J Neurosci 1994;6:1298-1306. 2. Silent functional magnetic resonance imaging demonstrates focal activation in rapid eye movement sleep. Thanks to the extraordinary possibilities of functional connections that take place in the brain when the "basic circuitries of our personality are programmed", dreams do contribute to shape new solutions for new problems. 119. Pompeiano O. Schmidek WR, Hoshino K, Schmidek M, Timo-Iaria C. Influence of environmental temperature on the sleep-wakefulness cycle in the rat. Contemporary neuroscientific theories often view dreams as epiphenomena, and many of the proposals for their biological function are contradicted by the phenomenology of dreams themselves. The motor components of dreams are expressed as clearly different patterns, according to the dream content. Selective deactivation of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex has been found in desynchronized sleep. It decreases, apparently exponentially as a function of age, from 60% at 4 to 30% at 7-8 and to 10% at 18 years of age (112). Physiol Behav 1972;8:363-71. (1987) suggested the occurrence of two kinds of eye movements during dreams, one associated to the very dream content, another of reflex nature, that may be involved in those occurring in children and in blind people but such a hypothesis is unlikely to be valid (35). 111. The vegetative components, that are phasic increases of heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, pupillary diameter, and most probably metabolic adjustments as well, are expressed more consistently during a dream, as they are during attentive wakefulness. Epub 2010 Nov 12. 54. Progr Neurobiol 1984;22:241-88. the apparitions. Green JD, Arduini A. Hippocampal activity in arousal. This author reported that dream production in human subjects from 3 to 5 years of age was minimal and that the content of the dream reports generally consisted of "static imagery" in the absence of narrative context. Mol Brain Sci 1995;32:211-20. 71. An official website of the United States government. Science 1966;153:206-8. Braz J Med Biol Res 1990;23:617-20. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 1992;16:25-30. In: Pompeiano, O. Experimental methodologies permitted investigation of the responsiveness of dreams to external stimulation and the effects of deprivation of REM sleep. The authors suggest that such a disturbance of reproduction occurs because desynchronized sleep (and consequently dreaming) was prevented to occur normally in infancy but the functional meaning of this interesting phenomenon. Noda H, Adey WR. For example, the Muslim physician Ib Sinna, known in Spain as Avicena, considered dreams more or less according to Aristotle's opinion but could not resist to accepting their premonitory character. WebThe psychoanalytic theory, in terms of its explanation for the function of dreams, has received much criticism from the psychological field. 29. Such electrophysiological studies demonstrate that the abovementioned sites in the central nervous system are involved in the oniric movements but they do not prove that such structures generate them. When they sleep, fishes keep quiet, with no apparent movements, and then they can be easily fished with a hand.". According to Hobson, Pace-Schotter & Stickgold (2000), since image studies show activation of "limbic" and "paralimbic" structures of the forebrain during desynchronized sleep, as compared to wakefulness (120,126-128), emotion may be a primary shaper of dream plots, rather than playing a secondary role plot instigation. 84. Vertes RP, Kocsis B. Brainstem-diencephalo-septohippocampal systems controlling the theta rhythm of the hippocampus. J Neurosci 1991;11:2804-11. The very essence of dreams is, certainly, memorized information. 92. 23. In fact, when the voltage of each theta wave in one site is compared with the voltage in another site it is possible to assess the degree of coincidence or phase shift between the two sites. Hence, experiments with such animals are extremely valuable and thus will be emphasized in the present review. The Jungian approach believed they are meaningful and contain; information-processing. 122. Kuboyama T, Hori A, Sato T, Mikami T, yamaki T, Ueda S. Changes in cerebral blood flow velocity in healthy young men during overnight sleep and while awake.Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1997;102:125-31. Arch Gen Psychiat 1966;14:238-48. Learn Mem 1999;6:500-8. 57. Instead, they thought that dreams were not provoked by spirits, ghosts or gods, which took over the mind to express themselves through dreaming. 87. Neurosc Res 1993;17:181-202. 51. (1996) and Braun et al. 20. Brain Res 1979;176:233-54. Does early night REM dream content reliably reflect presleep state of mind? Those that are common to all behaviors (increase in heart rate, blood pressure, blood flow to the nervous system and muscles, ventilation, pupil diameter and palmar and plantar electrical conductance) and are intended to increase the supply of blood, oxygen, glucose etc. Aristotle (1), who had carefully observed several animal species while asleep, noticed that movements of several of their body parts were quite similar to those performed by humans during dreaming. 11. Further developments in neurobiological research, including lesion and brain imaging studies, have established a clearer view of the functional neuroanatomy of REM sleep and dreaming. For sure, many even trivial daily events represent a threat to anyone and are certainly used as subjects for dreams not necessarily because of their emotional component. Fortunately, thanks to this peculiar incomplete motoneuron inhibition we are able to record movements occurring in both humans and non-human animals and thus infer the presence of dreams. University of Chicago Press, Chicago & London edition 1985. As mentioned above, Plato, preceding by twenty four centuries one of the dogmas of psychoanalysis, believed that "forbidden" dreams, such as incestuous or criminal dreams, were only a way of doing incestual sex or killing someone without punishment. Vogel GW, Foulkes D, Trosman H. Ego functions and dreaming during sleep onset. Plato, despite his logical view of dreams, antecipated by 24 centuries one of the dogmas of psychoanalysis, stating that the dreams with a sexual background, mainly those with an incestuous content, and those in which the dreamer attacked or even killed someone, did, in fact, represent occult wishes that only could be fulfilled without punishment as an oniric experience. Intermediate state of sleep in the cat. As a matter of fact, manifestations of dreaming have been identified in many species, including chickens, chimpanzees, cats, rats and in some birds. C R S Soc Biol (Paris) 1964;158:99-103. Les Belles Lettres, Paris 1978. In this preparation body temperature is not regulated anymore and the animal has to be artificially warmed at nearly 37C. Axons from neurons of the nucleus reticularis gigantocellularis descend along the ventral and ventrolateral funiculi and connect with inhibitory interneurons in the spinal cord (55,56). Neurosc Biobehav Rev 1992;16:372-97. Nature, 2002, submitted. If the animal is kept alive by forced feeding and is kept warm, in six days frontal desynchronization and theta waves in the other cortical areas reappear and then not only wakefulness is fully recovered but also desynchronized sleep, including oniric activity. Explanation for the function of dreams is, certainly, memorized information H. Ego functions and dreaming during onset! 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