. The N word was not used in my house. The center of the Smithville, Missouri, Police Department's patch depicts the Yankee-Smith Mill, built in 1924 by the city's namesake, Humphrey Smith. The action you just performed triggered the security solution. There were 2,067 households, out of which 41.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 62.7% were married couples living together, 8.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26.0% were non-families. The median income for a household in the city was $52,639, and the median income for a family was $58,966. Most fled without any belongings. Smithville, Missouri. Top 10 biggest cities by population are Little Rock, Fort Smith, Fayetteville, Springdale, Jonesboro, North Little Rock, Conway, Rogers, Pine Bluff, and Bentonville while top ten largest cities by land area are Farmington, Greenwood, Osceola, Maumelle, Lowell, Highland . The racial makeup of the city was 96.0% White, 0.7% African American, 0.5% Native American, 0.7% Asian, 0.4% from other races, and 1.7% from two or more races. Smitty's Buy Rite Liqour. We stay to ourselves and dont eat out because we dont trust what they would do to the food. At the Wal-Mart in Sheridan, some customers will not let the black workers check them out. Souring ceilings and the all white kitchen bring an airy and welcoming vibe to this home. Nearest city with pop. We mourn the loss of our friend and colleague and remain committed to the work he began. [5], According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 15.67 square miles (40.59km2), of which 15.56 square miles (40.30km2) is land and 0.11 square miles (0.28km2) is water. Prior to its sale in 1962, the Tarbells rich, creamy milk was shipped by rail to a number of high-scale restaurants in New York City. Then, between 1890 and 1940, white residents forced African Americans to make a Great Retreat in Arkansas and across the North. Some multi-county areas also kept out African Americans. Grab your best girl friend and come join us! **Weather permitting! . There were 3,280 housing units at an average density of 210.8 per square mile (81.4/km2). Total of 56 patent applications in 2008-2023. facts("Smithville-Missouri","Smithville","Add new facts and correct factual errors about Smithville, Missouri"); City-data.com does not guarantee the accuracy or timeliness of any information on this site. Van Buren, AR: Press-Argus, 1955. Sunday December 4th, 11th, 18th, 26th from 12:00 - 6:00. Sunday: 11am 7pm, Dec. 24: 10am 3pm Online at https://www.academia.edu/237967/_Negroes_Warned_to_Leave_Town_The_Bonanza_Race_War_of_1904_ (accessed May 10, 2022). 2018. In 1961, the Tarbells were raising more than 500 purebred Guernsey cattle in addition to horses, swine, sheep and chickens. Major funding provided by the Winthrop Rockefeller Foundation. View the full profile Air Quality Index (AQI) level in 2018 was 88.6. 6.2K views, 44 likes, 25 loves, 25 comments, 75 shares, Facebook Watch Videos from The New Real Stl News: BLACK HISTORY MONTH - SUNDOWN TOWNS IN ILLINOIS. Inkredible Art. Rate and review titles you borrow and share your opinions on them. Get the scoop on the 152 townhomes for sale in Smithville, MO. Listing Information presented by local MLS brokerage: Zillow, Inc., local REALTOR- Terry York - (913) 213-6604. 6pm-9pm The population was 10,406 at the 2020 United States Census. Tornado activity: Smithville-area historical tornado activity is slightly above Missouri state average.It is 101% greater than the overall U.S. average.. On 5/4/2003, a category F4 (max. Smithville Main Street District Things To Do, Smithville Main Street District Things To Do brought to you Smithville Bike Coop. The Little Platte is dammed just east of the city to form the Smithville Reservoir. The Real Polk County. The Looking Glass: Reflecting Life in the Ouachitas 5 (January 1980): 16. See pricing and listing details of Smithville real estate for sale. With the history of the town, there is/was a large amount of KKK and the entire town was white except for one Hispanic family and one Italian family. KCCV (760 AM; daytime; 6 kW; OVERLAND PARK, KS; KCTE (1510 AM; daytime; 10 kW; INDEPENDENCE, MO; KGGN (890 AM; daytime; 1 kW; GLADSTONE, MO; National Bridge Inventory (NBI) Statistics, Fire incident types reported to NFIRS in Smithville, MO. As of 2020, 0.993% of Smithville, MO residents were born outside of the country (102 people). For additional information: When looking into fire subcategories, the most incidents belonged to: Outside Fires (52.1%), and Structure Fires (31.6%). If a family refused to move, he would evict them and burn down their home. More generally, sundown town is used to describe a place where the resident population was through deliberate action made to be overwhelmingly composed of white people. I was a seventh-grade student, and the first thing I noticed was that we were all white. Major support provided through a partnership with the Arkansas Department of Parks & Tourism. Alive with quaint retailers, mouth-watering eateries and a 7,000+ acre recreational lake, Smithville is a town filled with charm and bustling with activity. 2,896,016). For $3.00 per person you take a 6 1/2 minute ride on the outskirts of Smithville on this fun, whimsical train. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.96% of the population. Settling along the Little Platte River, the Smith's established Smith's Mill, the first water-powered flour mill in Clay County. Sociologist Gordon Morgan, trying in 1973 to uncover the history of African Americans in the Ozarks, wrote, Some white towns have deliberately destroyed reminders of the blacks who lived there years ago. To this day, other than by oral history, sundown towns are hard to research, because communities took pains to ensure that nothing about their policy was written. The average household size was 12.68 and the average family size was 3.13. Total Eclipse: The Destruction of the African American Community of Harrison, Arkansas, in 1905 and 1909. Arkansas Historical Quarterly 58 (Summer 1999): 131159. By 1970, when sundown towns were at their peak, more than half of all incorporated communities outside the traditional South probably excluded African Americans, including probably more than a hundred towns in the northwestern two-thirds of Arkansas. Sundown towns continued to form in Arkansas as late as 1954, when white residents of Sheridan (Grant County) rid themselves of their black neighbors in response to Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas. Sundown towns have shown astonishing tenacity. Research Collection. About 2.5% of families and 4.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 4.0% of those under age 18 and 6.2% of those age 65 or over. Dan and Phyllis Morse note that race relations remain strained in that region, a polite way of saying that African Americans still do not and perhaps cannot live safely in that area a century later. **Weather permitting! The extensive research revealed that at least 60 of Kentucky's 782 towns are considered sundown towns. Learn more about local market trends & nearby amenities at realtor.com. lay unholy hands upon our fair daughters, nature is so riven and shocked that the dire compact produces a social cataclysm. White people responded with violence. [9] The town was originally known as "Smith's Mill" but ultimately became "Smithville" as it was easier to pronounce. Jan. 1: 12pm 6pm, Store Hours for Dec. 26, 2023 [10], The Aker Cemetery and Downtown Smithville Historic District are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.[11][12]. Pay By Mail. Make sure you check out what's happening so you don't miss out on the fun! This beautifully decorated Christmas tree awakens to talk with you and your children about the upcoming holidays and, well, anything you might want. Several Arkansas counties and towns show a slowly diminishing number of African Americans between 1890 and 1940 because they did not allow new black people in, and those who remained gradually died or left. In the aftermath, Polk Countys black residents fled. Daytime population change due to commuting: -3,024 (-29.7%) Some IDX listings have been excluded from this website. Website 2023 Advameg, Inc. Based on the data from the years 2002 - 2018 the average number of fires per year is 22. The Magic Talking Christmas Tree If you are having trouble locating Mrs. Claus, you can always ask the Magic Tree. Once Marcus Allen (the football player) moved to Smithville, things started to ease up. The Boone County events probably led to ejections from neighboring counties. Hosted by Tougaloo College, Tougaloo, MS, 39174 and facilitated by Pantheon. That was the first and last time we went out to eat. There are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a SQL command or malformed data. These communities were known as "sundown towns" both to residents and those passing through. Pre-European Exploration, Prehistory through 1540, European Exploration and Settlement, 1541 through 1802, Louisiana Purchase through Early Statehood, 1803 through 1860, Civil War through Reconstruction, 1861 through 1874, Post-Reconstruction through the Gilded Age, 1875 through 1900, Early Twentieth Century, 1901 through 1940, World War II through the Faubus Era, 1941 through 1967, Divergent Prosperity and the Arc of Reform, 19682022, in 1859, Arkansas required such persons to leave the state, https://www.academia.edu/237967/_Negroes_Warned_to_Leave_Town_The_Bonanza_Race_War_of_1904_, https://justice.tougaloo.edu/sundown-towns/. Sundown Towns are all-white communities, neighborhoods, or counties that exclude Blacks and other minorities through the use of discriminatory laws, harassment, and threats or use of violence. Harrison remained a sundown town at least until 2002. Moreover, in 1864, the loyalist Arkansas faction passed a new state constitution that abolished slavery but excluded African Americans from moving into the state. Both the train and carousel are open village hours weather permitting throughout the month of December. Monday Friday : 10am 7pm, -Light Show on the Lake: Smokey Crabtree, longtime resident of Fouke (Miller County), wrote in 2001: As far back as the late twenties colored people werent welcome in Fouke, Arkansas to live, or to work in town. During this Nadir of Race Relations, lynchings peaked, and unions drove African Americans from such occupations as railroad fireman and meat cutter. Silver Screen stars Wallace Beery and Noah Beery, Sr. were born and raised near Smithville. For every 100 females, there were 91.7 males. By 1960, six counties had no African Americans (Baxter, Fulton, Polk, Searcy, Sharp, and Stone), seven more had one to three, and yet another county had six. The highest number of reported fires - 62 took place in 2009, and the least - 2 in 2010. Submit your own pictures of this city and show them to the world For listings in Canada, the trademarks REALTOR, REALTORS, and the REALTOR logo are controlled by The Canadian Real Estate Association (CREA) and identify real estate professionals who are members of CREA. Hotels near Kansas City Intl Airport (MCI), Hotels near Kansas City Downtown Municipal Airport (MKC), Motels near Kansas City Downtown Municipal Airport (MKC), Motels near Kansas City Intl Airport (MCI), Hotels near Donna's Academy of Hair Design, Hotels near National American University-Zona Rosa. 4631 Sundown Ct, Missouri City, TX 77459 $393,145 Redfin Estimate 4 Beds 2.5 Baths 2,658 Sq Ft Off Market This home was last listed for $399,000 on Apr 18, 2022. The median age in the city was 36.9 years. The city put up an almost life sized chalk statue of a colored man at the city limit line, he had an iron bar in one hand and was pointing out of town with the other hand. Honor or memorial gifts are an everlasting way to pay tribute to someone who has touched your life. [Click here for more information](/info/mls-disclaimers/#mls_45) Visit little known hideouts and avenues that open the mind into what being a local is all about. Smithville is named after Humphrey "Yankee" Smith (1774 May 5, 1857) after he settled at the site in 1822. You can drop off your bill payment (Check or Money Order; NO CASH) at our main office in Ellettsville. Smithville is a city in Clay and Platte counties in the U.S. state of Missouri and is part of the Kansas City metropolitan area, along the Little Platte River. Most people escaping the city would move as far north as Plattsburg because they would not survive in Smithville. Another reputed history behind the name is that it was going to be named Smith's Mill, but there was already another current settlement in Missouri with the same name so it was altered slightly to differentiate it. Crime rate in Smithville, MO The 2019 crime rate in Smithville, MO is 83 (City-Data.com crime index), which is 3.3 times smaller than the U.S. average. In Mississippi County, for example, according to historian Michael Dougan, a red line that was originally a road surveyors mark defined a dead line beyond which African Americans might not trespass to the west. In the last 5 years Smithville has seen increasing violent crime and rise of property crime. 592 pages. Search Smithville Chamber Of Commerce to find the top-rated small businesses, events, job openings, and business advice. Sundown Towns. History and Social Justice. There were 3,115 households, of which 142.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 61.0% were married couples living together, 9.1% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.5% had a male householder with no wife present, and 25.5% were non-families. The owner of the local sawmill and the sawmill workers homes was principally responsible. JD's Pub and Grill. Robles, Josh. Read our Privacy Policy. This is about average. The population density was 402.1 people per square mile (155.3/km2). 3. Display/hide their locations on the map, Cemetery: Brooks Cemetery (1). On 5/20/1957, a category F5 (max. A white mob then took him from jail, fractured his skull, shot him, and cut his throat. For much of the 20th century, thousands of all-white American towns forbade Black people from being within the city limits after nightfall. 72201. I came across the slogan, Nigger, dont let the sun go down on you here, in the novel West with Giraffes. Historian Patrick Huber calls the expulsions by which Ozark communities became sundown towns defining events in the history of their communities. Nevertheless, despite that importance, or rather because of it, most sundown towns have kept hidden the means by which they became and stayed white. [15], Smithville has a public library, a branch of the Mid-Continent Public Library. There were 2,220 housing units at an average density of 161.9 per square mile (62.5/km2). Use at your own risk. Jump to a detailed profile, search site with google or try advanced search. White Mans Heaven: The Lynching and Expulsion of Blacks in the Southern Ozarks, 18941909. Zillow, Inc. holds real estate brokerage licenses in multiple states. [10], The Aker Cemetery and Downtown Smithville Historic District are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.[11][12]. Go into the places only locals are familiar with. #SundownTowns #SmithvilleMissouriExamining the town of Smithville, Missouri There were 2,067 households, out of which 41.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 62.7% were married couples living together, 8.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26.0% were non-families. Director Mylo Butler Writers Mylo Butler Jada Lewter Stars Tashan Thornton Michael Haggerty Alec Lajtos See production, box office & company info 18473 County Line Rd, Smithville MO, 64089 Dominic Dixon Listing Office: KC Realtors LLC #2411832 Backup Offers $ 389,900 4 2 2,108 SqFt 412 E Meadow St, Smithville MO, 64089 Edie Waters Team - North Listing Office: Keller Williams KC North #2410596 $ 515,000 4 3 2,586 SqFt 17603 Grey Hawke Rdg, Smithville MO, 64089 Jennifer Edlin Listing Office: The ratio of registered sex offenders to all residents in this city is much lower than the state average. . That tells about me: Im eighty-two and fairly well read, yet never saw this slogan before. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 2014. And now there's a website that tracks so-called "sundown towns," where blacks were barred, discriminated against and even murdered. 1,000,000+: Chicago, IL (399.8 miles , pop. testimony of a former resident: About 2.5% of families and 4.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 4.0% of those under age 18 and 6.2% of those age 65 or over. Statistic Count Raw Smithville / 100k People Missouri / 100k People National / 100k People; Total Crimes Per 100K: 142: Violent Crime: 24: 216.3: 542.7: 387.8: Murder The city kept the statue painted and dressed, really taking good care of it. Later, she insisted that her name was Alecta Caledonia Melvina Smith, but she also let white people call her Aunt Vine, which played along with the inferior status connoted by uncle and auntie as applied to older African Americans and helped her survive in an otherwise all-white community. However, that constitution never went into effect, and during Reconstruction, African Americans participated politically across the state. They Are Not Wanted: The Extirpation of African Americans from Baxter County, Arkansas. Arkansas Historical Quarterly 69 (Spring 2010): 2844. Nichols, Cheryl Griffith. In the city, the population was spread out, with 28.4% under the age of 18, 6.6% from 18 to 24, 34.3% from 25 to 44, 19.2% from 45 to 64, and 11.6% who were 65 years of age or older. White residents of the traditional South rarely engaged in the practice; they kept African Americans down but hardly drove them out. Stay current with all the latest and breaking news about Smithville, Missouri, compare headlines and perspectives between news sources on stories happening today. North Town Mechanical Inc Well Drilling Contractor 6820 Ne 156th St Smithville, MO 64089 (816) 532-2266 ( 0 Reviews ) M L Controls Well Drilling Contractor 12% of Missourians reported having a personal experience with violent crime in the past 12 monthsdown from 13% the last year. New York: The New Press, 2005. -Girls Night Out: Village Dry Cleaners. The data has a dropping trend. . A mix of the charming, modern, and tried and true. Smithville was named for Humphrey and Nancy Smith who came west with their six sons and daughter from New York state in 1822 to find land and build a home. Goosehead Insurance Agency. Sundown towns may seem like relics of a bygone era, but they aren't. They're still with us. In 2020, there were 14.4 times more White (Non-Hispanic) residents (9.35k people) in Smithville, MO than any other race or ethnicity. All data is obtained from various sources and may not have been verified by broker or MLS GRID. Median real estate property taxes paid for housing units with mortgages in 2019: $2,412 (1.0%) Smithville is located at 3923?12?N 9434?36?W / 39.38667N 94.57667W / 39.38667; -94.57667 (39.386620, -94.576713), primarily in Clay County. In 1912 it was purchased by Frederick Hansmann of New York City and in the 1920s he developed a pancake mix which required only the addition of water, the first of its kind. This town does not have a passport office, but we suggest the following facilities near Smithville, NY Smithville administrative numbers Smithville administrative data Information on Smithville Toponymy and translation of Smithville Transportation modes in Smithville Smithville territory Smithville neighbouring towns and cities Race, History, and Memory in Harrison, Arkansas: An Ozarks Town Reckons with Its Past. In Race and Ethnicity in Arkansas: New Perspectives, edited by John A. Kirk. The methods for enforcing such racial segregation ranged . Entire counties went sundown, such as Boone, Clay, and Polk. The Rogers Historical Museum has done an exemplary job of preserving an example of this suppression. You can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. . The median age in the city was 36.9 years. By 1930, three Arkansas counties had no African Americans at all, and another eight had fewer than ten, all in the Arkansas Ozarks. document.getElementById( "ak_js_1" ).setAttribute( "value", ( new Date() ).getTime() ); This site was created by Matt Cheney, revised by OddBird, copyrighted by James W. Loewen and heirs (Nick Loewen), and is maintained by Phil Huckelberry and Stephen Berrey. With interactive Sundown Missouri Map, view regional highways maps, road situations, transportation, lodging guide, geographical map, physical maps and more information. . Missouri has sundown towns of its own. In his book, Loewen profiles three Indiana towns; Elwood, Huntington and Martinsville. Everyday in December 5:30-8:30, -Holiday Train Ride: Out of the 928 houses that are four bedroom the average listing price for Smithville is $284,196. Thus were created sundown towns, so named because many marked their city limits with signs typically reading, Nigger, Dont Let The Sun Go Down On You In Alixan Arkansas town in Franklin County that had such a sign around 1970. There were 3,280 housing units at an average density of 210.8 per square mile (81.4/km2). KCI Expo Center. A Bentonville (Benton County) contractor was building a brick building in Rogers and brought with him a black hod carrier: A group of young men were gathered in the Blue saloon when the Negro entered, probably looking for his employer. However, our biggest challenge is usually deciding where to go next. more. Learn why sundown cities, towns, suburbs, and neighborhoods developed-and how they continue to shape the lives and relationships of black and white Americans today. Notable locations in Smithville: Amory (A), Smithville Area Fire Protection District Station 2 (B), Smithville Area Fire Protection District Station 1 (C). Economic boycott has kept many African Americans out of sundown towns. There were 3,115 households, of which 142.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 61.0% were married couples living together, 9.1% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.5% had a male householder with no wife present, and 25.5% were non-families. If you can, provide 1-2 sources of information backing up this correction. The group seized the Negro and began telling what they were going to do with him. They threatened to drop him in an old well in the rear of the construction site after they had hanged him, but others objected on the ground that the odor from the ones already planted there was becoming objectionable to the neighborhood. Eventually, they let the trembling Negro slip, and in a matter of seconds, he was just a blur on the horizon. The incident was meant to be funny, for had the men been serious, they could easily have apprehended the runaway, yet was not entirely in jest, for it accomplished the mans unemployment, surely one of its aims. The median age was 34 years. Industry past: Hansmanns Mills was originally a feed and flour mill. We have come to a parting of the way with the Negro, he shouted. Never walk in Greenwood or you will die, a black Arkansas college student said in 2002. Our eighth-grade history project involved removing many layers of billboard ads off an old billboard to reveal a sundown-town sign. Documents the history of towns across the United States that exclude African Americans (and other racial/ethnic groups) after sundown. The trademarks MLS, Multiple Listing Service and the associated logos are owned by CREA and identify the quality of services provided by real estate professionals who are members of CREA. Jones, Catherine Ponder. Smithville - clicky or open to new families? Negroes Are Leaving Paragould by Hundreds: Racial Cleansing in a Northeast Arkansas Railroad Town. Arkansas Review: A Journal of Delta Studies 41 (April 2010): 315. This is significantly worse than average. While living in Smithville, there were no people of color, no Jewish, no Asians. What Sundown Towns Represent For Black Drivers Today 09:37Play August 26, 2021 Celeste Headlee and Camila Beiner The sun sets over a field outside of Anna, Illinois. Ladoga Ridge Winery. Give a donation in someones name to mark a special occasion, honor a friend or colleague or remember a beloved family member. The. This is about average. Louisville: University Press of Colorado, 2019. This browser is no longer supported. sundown town, also called sunset town, in U.S. history, a town that excluded nonwhite peoplemost frequently African Americansfrom remaining in town after sunset. 146,866). The population was 10,406 at the 2020 United States Census. 29% of residents were under the age of 18; 5.9% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 29.3% were from 25 to 44; 25.8% were from 45 to 64; and 10.2% were 65 years of age or older. It is designed to be a starting point to help parents make baseline comparisons, not the only factor in selecting the right school for your family. Froelich, Jacqueline. Creating an account gives you access to all these features. Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) [ppb] level in 2018 was 10.6. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2014. Much of this area had been Unionist during the Civil War. Population density: 787 people per square mile (low). On Sundown Missouri Map, you can view all states, regions, cities, towns, districts, avenues, streets and popular centers' satellite, sketch . Shirley Manning, a high school student there in 196061, describes the scene: The local boys would threaten with words and knives Negroes who would come through town, and follow them to the outskirts of town shouting better not let the sun set on your black ass in Mena, Arkansas, and they often bumped the car with their bumper from behind. For a small fee you will purchase your own smores packet and stick and make delicious yummy treats or just gather with us and enjoy . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.96% of the population. Condo/Townhouse Homes for Sale in Smithville MO. 21.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. About 80 percent of the suburbs of Northern cities, from Long Island to Los . December in Smithville has something for the Girls too! (Free Event). This is the version of our website addressed to speakers of English in the United States. 5pm 8pm weather permitting (high winds or rain are the only thing that will prevent this event). Check with the applicable school district prior to making a decision based on these boundaries. Latest news from Smithville, MO collected exclusively by city-data.com from local newspapers, TV, and radio stations. [16], Dictionary of Missouri Biography, Lawrence O. Christensen, University of Missouri Press, 1999, Last edited on 19 November 2022, at 21:16, U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System: Smithville, Missouri, "NOAA Online Weather Data NWS Kansas City/Pleasant Hill", "U.S. Rea, Ralph R. Boone County and Its People. Buzzfeed News reported on the continued existence of sundown towns in 2021: In 2017, the NAACP issued a travel warning for the entire state of Missouri, a first for the organization. Hit the wine tasting events and stock up on your favorite choice to be shipped home for your convenience. Additional support provided by the Arkansas Community Foundation. There was one black student who graduated in 1979, but I would have had no idea because I was only a year old at that time. . Although there were not towns like these prior to the Civil War, precedents existed for the exclusion of free African Americans. Males had a median income of $42,388 versus $29,150 for females. Climate Normals Quick Access Station: Smithville Lake, MO", "National Register of Historic Places Listings", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Smithville,_Missouri&oldid=1122804565, This page was last edited on 19 November 2022, at 21:16. -Girls Night Out: Send your payments via mail. At that time, it was called the Genegantslet Roller Mills and sold feed, grain and flour. Sundown Town 2021 10 m IMDb RATING 8.6 /10 7 YOUR RATING Rate Short Action Adventure Bryce and Mitchell's trip home is disrupted after making a pit stop in a mysteriously unwelcoming town. His TikTok from May 3 has been . Smithville R-II School District operates three elementary schools, one middle school and Smithville High School. Please switch to a supported browser or download one of our Mobile Apps. Precisely in counties where residents had been Unionists, white residents now often seemed impelled to prove themselves ultra-Confederate and manifested the most robust anti-black fervor.
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